Final Hazards Iceland: Volcanoes and Extreme Weather/Storms

 

          Iceland is a land of many extremes and the people who inhabit this island nation must prepare for a myriad of natural hazards, including storms, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and avalanches. Even though there are so many to choose from, I have decided to focus on the two natural hazards of volcanoes and storms/extreme weather. I chose these as a priority because I feel that they pose the biggest threat to the loss of human life. 

 Volcanoes are very common here because Iceland is located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,  a divergent tectonic plate boundary (The North American, and the European plates)  and is situated right on top of a hotspot. With more than  32 active volcanoes here volcanic activity is a regular occurrence and eruptions happen on average every 3 years. Most eruptions do not cause substantial damage, mostly due to the fact that Iceland is very sparsely populated. Still, the threat posed by a large volcanic event is ever-present. 

The issue of extreme weather is another area of concern in Iceland.  In fact it is said that for 6 months out of the year, it is the most dangerous thing in this nation.  The reason that the weather is so extreme is due to its geographical location which is just about in the middle of the North Atlantic.  

     The recommendation that I would have to address the mitigation of the hazard of volcanoes centers mainly on awareness.  Monitoring of volcanic activity is key as is informing the public regarding impending eruptions.  The Iceland Meteorological Office does a very good job of this by using seismometers and GPS in volcanic regions and glacial rivers. It is also important to monitor noxious gases in eruption plumes and emissions from non-erupting volcanoes. Education regarding evacuation in the event of an eruption would need to be a priority as well.  Finally, an emergency preparedness plan, insurance,  and education for the public would be a high priority for me if I were in charge. 

To address the mitigation of extreme weather events, I would also make educating the public my first priority.  Minimization and mitigation techniques should also include more accurate predictions so that they can better forecast and warn the public. Construction of buildings that can better withstand severe weather in order to minimize death and loss of property. Hazard preparedness that informs the public of actions to take and where to go once the warning of severe weather has gone out. Finally, I would emphasize the importance of insurance in the event of these disasters. 

In regard to where I would focus first, I would say that it would be the  Katla volcano. This volcano is a subglacial, basaltic-to–rhyolitic, and it has the reputation of being one of the most dangerous volcanoes in Iceland. Since the Laki craters and the Eldgjá (Eldgja) fissure system are part of the same volcanic system, Katla can be regarded as one of the most powerful volcanoes in the world. This volcano is one of the largest volcanic sources of CO2 on the planet, and contributes up to 4% of global emissions from non-erupting volcanoes. 

If I were to construct a home in Iceland I would choose somewhere in the southwest area around Reykjavik.  Clearly, this is the choice of the majority of Icelanders as well, as it is the most populous area of the country.  I would choose an area that is not at the bottom of a slope, nor on the edge of a cliff near the water. Although from what I have been able to glean, this is the best and most desirable area of the country, there is really no place that is completely safe from volcanic activity and extreme weather so it would be important to pay attention to all of the mitigation measures that I mentioned earlier. 

Sources:

https://www.government.is/

https://www.consorsegurosdigital.com/

https://www.icelandontheweb.com/

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2018GL079096#:~:text=Katla%20is%20one%20of%20the,global%20emissions%20from%20nonerupting%20volcanoes.

Iceland's Coastal Hazards

  

Coastal erosion, sea level rise, and storm surges are some of the coastal hazards that are experienced in Iceland. Iceland is a large island, with a number of smaller islands, so there is a lot of coastline!  The coastline of Iceland is 6.542,4 km (40.652,5 miles) long,  and the coastal hazard level in Iceland is classified as medium.  This means that there is more than a 20% chance of potentially damaging coastal flood waves occurring in the next 10 years. 

Most of the damage experienced in Iceland occurs from coastal erosion due to extreme weather and waves.  Storm surges and extreme waves have caused considerable damage along the coast.  The most extensive damage has occurred in low-lying coastal areas and poorly protected harbors around the south and west coasts of the country. 

This is a great video that shows how dangerous the waves can become. 

https://youtu.be/cSgSMZsMh4A

WAVES The advancing seas are eroding beaches along Iceland's coasts and imperiling archeological remains that have not yet been researched. Photo/Vísir.

In addition to the hazards mentioned above, Iceland has the added issue of glaciers that are melting, some at a level of over 150m a year,  and contributing to sea level rise in the area. 

An interesting, and sad, thing that I learned is that rising sea levels pose a threat not only to the current population of the country but also to  Iceland’s Viking history. Coastal erosion is a serious threat to archaeological sites in many places around Iceland. Many of these sites are believed to contain items and remains dating from the settlement of Iceland and the Viking Age.  The price of saving them is hampering the efforts to save them too. Iceland's Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture estimates that documenting the country's artifacts before they are lost could cost 330 million Krona, about $3.3 million U.S. currency. Some of the Icelandic Artifacts date from the Viking age and include fishing camps and cemeteries. You can read more about it here. 

Mitigation measures:

In order to mitigate these hazards Iceland needs to (and does):

1. Consider the impact of coastal flooding in any decision to build in an area prone to flooding, or erosion.  

2. Have evacuation plans (and contingency evacuation plans).

3. Risk awareness for coastal areas and villages. 

4. Have in place robust emergency response plans and protocols.

5. Consultation with technical experts familiar with coastal flooding and hazards.

6. Insurance for risks that can’t be mitigated. 

7. Critical infrastructure; (e.g. hospital, fire station, etc.)

Sources:

Wave video

https://youtu.be/cSgSMZsMh4A

Iceland Magazine

https://icelandmag.is/

CNN

https://www.cnn.com/

Guide to Iceland

https://guidetoiceland.is/

Week 11: Cyclonic Events

      

Super Typhoon Goni as seen by the light of the Halloween full moon on October 31, 2020, by the VIIRS instrument. The lights of Manila are visible at left. (Image credit: NASA Worldview)

     I have been studying Iceland, which does not really have terrible damage from cyclonic events, so I chose to write about Super Typhoon Goni, which hit Philippines in November of 2020 and caused catastrophic damage in the region of Catanduanes Island.  The reason that I chose to write about it is that I remember hearing about  it vividly because my dear friend who is from Philippines was so worried about family there and we were already so concerned about COVID-19. Goni, known as Rolly in Philippines, was the strongest landfalling tropical cyclone in world history at the time. It had sustained winds of 195mph and central pressure of 884mb. 

Infrared satellite image of Super Typhoon Goni at 4:50 p.m. EDT October 31, when it was making landfall on Catanduanes Island in the Philippines with sustained winds of 195 mph and a central pressure of 884 mb. (Image credit: RAMMB/CIRA/Colorado State University)

Radar image of Super Typhoon Goni making landfall near Bato, on Catanduanes Island, in the Philippines, at 20:50 UTC October 31. (Image credit: PAGASA)

The damage caused by Goni/Rolly was extensive. As stated in a Yale Climate Connections article  “The wind damage from a 195-mph hurricane would be akin to that from a high-end EF3 tornado with 165 mph winds.”

Damage was caused by storm surge, torrential rains, landslides, and flooding. Lahars, buried 300 homes,  killed at least three people and caused another three to go missing. 

Fortunately this massive storm’s eyewall collapsed shortly after landfall and spared the city of Manila, which has a population of more than 13 million. Had it not, the devastation would have been unimaginable. 

Mitigation efforts included warnings to stay away from the coast or beach, low lying areas, and cancel any maritime activities.  In addition it was suggested to stay up to date on the status of the storm.

Storm surge forecast for Goni issued by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) on Saturday, October 31, 2020.

In addition  another mitigation measure would be to avoid building near the coast or beach, or to raise any building so that it would not be destroyed by storm surge. 

Sources:

Yale Climate Connections:

https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2020/11/super-typhoon-goni-slams-into-philippines-as-strongest-landfalling-tropical-cyclone-on-record/

Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA)

https://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/

Center for Disaster: Super Typhoon Goni

https://disasterphilanthropy.org/disasters/super-typhoon-goni/#:~:text=Goni's%20peak%20winds%20were%20as,storm%20killed%20about%206%2C000%20people.

Week 10: Extreme Weather in Iceland....BRRRRRR!!!!

 

People in Iceland are fairly used to some pretty crazy weather including blizzards. Blizzards are the most common type of extreme weather in Iceland. A blizzard is when a severe winter storm has large amounts of falling snow driven by high winds to create low visibility for an extended period of time. In 2015 Iceland experienced its worst storm on record with winds over 160 miles per hour and an accumulation of over 10 feet of snow in the mountains. 

This was the first "named' storm in Iceland and they named it Diddú,after a known opera singer in Iceland.The worst damage was in South Iceland and the Westman Islands.  The strength of the winds blew the roofs off of houses, and boats disappeared because they just up and blew away! Thankfully people were not hurt, but there was such extensive property damage that the cleanup was very expensive and lengthy. 

It is best to stay indoors when there is a blizzard in Iceland, or anywhere for that matter. The biggest dangers during a blizzard come from flying objects in the wind, downed powerlines, and white-out conditions for driving and walking. The wind chill effect that is created in a storm such as this is dangerous to exposed skin.  The moving air reduces the time it takes for frostbite to occur, so the lower wind chill temperature is more important than the air temperature in a blizzard.  This is yet another reason to stay inside if you weren't already convinced.  

You can click here to watch a short video of an extreme snowstorm in Iceland.  It made me cold just to watch it!

Minimization and mitigation techniques should include more accurate prediction so that they can better forecast and warn the public. Construction of buildings that can better withstand severe weather in order to minimize death and loss of property. Hazard preparedness that informs the public of actions to take and where to go once the warning of severe weather has gone out. Finally, education and insurance programs that will help to reduce the risk. 

Sources:

YouTube: Icelandscapes Snow Storm, uploaded by Brenner, Stefan  December 11, 2014

https://youtu.be/NZmDv0QJs34

Guide to Iceland

https://guidetoiceland.is/connect-with-locals/nanna/a-massive-storm-hits-iceland-see-the-devastation

Keller, E. A., & DeVecchio, D. E. (2015). Natural hazards: Earth's processes as hazards, disasters, and catastrophes (4th ed.). Pearson.

Week 9: Subsidence in Iceland

 

Subsidence is a sinking of the ground due to underground material movement. Its causes can include human interference (anthropogenic subsidence) such as removal of water and natural resources such as oil and natural gas  from the ground by means of pumping, fracking, or mining. Subsidence can also be caused by naturally occurring events including earthquakes, soil compaction,  glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA), erosion, and sinkhole formation.  It can happen anywhere in the world and it does happen in Iceland but is rarely a problem for humans due to the fact that Iceland is proactive about where they build and the country is quite sparsely populated.  

Iceland is a country that is constantly deforming.  Subsidence in this country has a number of causes such as plate spreading, GIA, volcanic, and geothermal processes. GIA is the ongoing movement of land in response to the last ice age. The following explanation from NOAA made it very clear for me so I am quoting it below in the hopes that you will also find it helpful:

Here's how it works: Imagine lying down on a soft mattress and then getting up from the same spot. You see an indentation in the mattress where your body had been, and a puffed-up area around the indentation where the mattress rose. Once you get up, the mattress takes a little time before it relaxes back to its original shape.

Even the strongest materials (including the Earth's crust) move, or deform, when enough pressure is applied. So when ice by the megaton settled on parts of the Earth for several thousand years, the ice bore down on the land beneath it, and the land rose up beyond the ice's perimeter—just like the mattress did when you lay down on and then got up off of it.

GIA is the main source of vertical deformation in Iceland while plate spreading is the main source of horizontal deformation.  

Iceland has long made use of the geothermal waters in this country so an anthropogenic cause of deformation in Iceland occurs around  the Reykjanes, Svartsengi, Hellisheidi geothermal power plants as well.  

A photo of an “ice cauldron” at Bárðarbunga caldera, which scientists have surmised have probably formed due to volcanic, or geothermal activity below the surface. 

As far as mitigation measures are concerned, the Icelandic Meteorological Office constantly shares updates with the public.  The government also uses seismic monitoring, satellites,  and GPS systems to monitor the  degree of subsidence.  In addition, as I stated earlier in this post, the country is selective about development and is not a very populous country which also helps in this regard. 

Finally, I would like to share this relatively new bit of land in Iceland.(see photo below)  This piece of land is temporary as it has already experienced a great deal of subsidence, but I found it very interesting. 

Above is a picture of Surtsey Island, which was created in a 1960 volcanic eruption. It is located on the southern coast of Iceland.   Already the island has shrunk to half of its original size due to subsidence and erosion.  Scientists predict that it will sink back below the surface sometime after the end of the current century. 

Sources:

Researchgate

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Subsidence-in-Reykjanes-RNES-and-Svartsengi-SVAR-estimated-from-GPS-measurements_fig4_284578691

Visit Iceland

https://www.visiticeland.com/article/unesco-world-heritage

NOAA

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/

Week 8: Mass Wasting in Iceland

Landslide in Reyðarfjörður – Photo by Halldór G. Pétursson

Mass Wasting  is very common in Iceland, due to the terrain and a number of contributing factors, such as interaction between climate, lithology of the region, and soil erosion.  Although gravity alone can be responsible for a landslide, there are also a number of triggers in Iceland.  These triggers include: intense rainfall,  melting and retreat of the frozen landscape, changes in groundwater currents, seismic activity, and the undercutting of the land by ocean waves and glaciers. The highest landslide risk in Iceland occurs during seasonal low-pressure systems that happen in the fall bringing heavy rainfall and wind, and from the spring snow melt. 

Extent of the largest landslide where it entered the sea

.(Photo: National Commissioner's Special Forces)

     Quite recently, a landslide in Seyðisfjörður  occurred in December 2020.  This was the largest landslide to have damaged an urban area in Iceland. Fortunately no lives were lost in this event. (See photo above and outlines below)

Outlines of the December landslides in Seyðisfjörður, eastern Iceland.

There are a number of types of landslides that occur in Iceland including rockfalls, mud or debris flows, earth flows, rock slides, and gradual creep. They occur in all regions of Iceland but mostly in Central North Iceland, the East Fjords, and the West Fjords. 

Mitigation efforts are centered mostly on land use planning and creating "no build" zones. Experts are also researching the creation of better monitoring systems and the possibility of building mudslide barriers above towns that may be in danger of landslides. According to the Icelandic Meteorological Office, " Althingi ‒ the national parliament of Iceland ‒ recently approved a five-year budget plan, increasing government funding for the construction of avalanche defenses by 1.6 billion ISK annually."  Hopefully this will help expedite the creation of these defenses and increase safety for residents and tourists alike.  

  Sources:

Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO)

https://en.vedur.is/

Icelandic Institute of Natural History

https://www.ni.is/

Week 7 Flooding in Iceland

   Iceland is a fairly large island situated in the middle of the North-Atlantic ocean, just south of the Arctic Circle, between 63.4°N and 66.5°N latitude. Iceland is a country that has a medium risk of coastal flooding, according to Thinkhazard.com. In order to deal with this issue before a flood, the government of Iceland has taken a number of  measures.   Building projects, including planning, design, and construction methods,  are to take into consideration the level of coastal flooding hazard in a given area and proceed accordingly. 

     “Coastal flood risks are defined by water levels and water velocity. The levels determine how much of the building from the ground up is exposed to potential damage. Water velocity is often discounted or entirely ignored although it is often responsible for as much or more damage than water contact alone. As with wind, rapidly moving flood waters can carry large and heavy debris that upon impact can cause direct physical damage. Soil scour within fast moving water can penetrate the building envelope and lead to expensive clean up costs. Be mindful of these risks by evaluating surrounding land use and potential land development in the vicinity of your project area.” 

    Iceland is unique in that there are many glaciers situated directly on top of geothermal activity which can melt the glacier and  can result in glacial flooding.  This can have disastrous effects and result in a mega flood called a  Jökulhlaup which has threatened people and damaged large areas of land impacting agriculture and livestock. The most recent one occurred between November and December 2021 which is pictured below:

The water level rose substantially in the Gígjukvísl river between 28 November (left) and 1 December 2021 (right) from the jökulhlaup that began on 24 November draining the subglacial lake at Grímsvötn. View is to the S from the IMO webcam. Courtesy of IMO.

The National Weather Service gives the following information regarding what to do before a flood:

Sometimes floods develop slowly and forecasters can anticipate where a flood will happen days or weeks before it occurs. Oftentimes flash floods can occur within minutes and sometimes without any sign of rain. Being prepared can save your life and give you peace of mind.

–Create a Communications Plan

It is important to be able to communicate with your family and friends in the event of a disaster. Whether it is having a specific person identified to contact for status updates or a safe location to meet up with family members, having a plan in place will give you peace of mind if disaster does strike.

–Assemble an Emergency Kit

It is good practice to have enough food, water and medicine on hand at all times to last you at least 3 days in the case of an emergency. Water service may be interrupted or unsafe to drink and food requiring little cooking and no refrigeration may be needed if electric power is interrupted. You should also have batteries, blankets, flashlights, first aid kit, rubber boots, rubber gloves, and a NOAA Weather Radio or other battery operated radio easily available.

–Know Your Risk

Is your home, business or school in a floodplain? Where is water likely to collect on the roadways you most often travel? What is the fastest way to get to higher ground? Knowing the answers to these questions ahead of time can save your life.

–Sign Up for Notifications

The Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service provides RSS feeds for observed forecast and alert river conditions to help keep the public informed about local water conditions

–Prepare Your Home

Sometimes floods develop slowly and forecasters can anticipate where a flood will happen days or weeks before it occurs. Oftentimes flash floods can occur within minutes and sometimes without any sign of rain. Being prepared can save your life and give you peace of mind.

1. If you have access to sandbags or other materials, use them to protect your home from flood waters if you have sufficient time to do so. Filling sandbags can take more time than you may think.

2. Have a professional install check-valves in plumbing to prevent flood waters from backing up into the drains of your home. Make sure your sump pump is working and consider having a backup. Make sure your electric circuit breakers, or fuses, are clearly marked for each area of your home.

3. Since standard homeowners insurance doesn't cover flooding, ensure coverage by contacting your insurance company or agent to purchase flood insurance. This must be done before there is even a threat of flooding as insurance companies stop issuing policies if there is a threat of flooding. (i.e. an approaching hurricane). Many flood insurance policies take at least 30 days to go into effect so even if you can buy it as a storm is approaching, it may not protect your investment.

–Prepare your Family/Pets

You may be evacuated, so pack in advance. Don't wait until the last moment to gather the essentials for yourself, your family and/or your pets.

–Charge Your Essential Electronics

Make sure your cell phone and portable radios are all charged in case you lose power or need to evacuate. Also make sure you have back-up batteries on hand.

–Leave

If it is likely your home will flood, don't wait to be ordered to leave; evacuate yourself! Make alternative plans for a place to stay. If you have pets, take them with you or make arrangements to board them at a facility well away from the flooding danger.

Thinkhazard:

https://thinkhazard.org/en/report/114-iceland/CF#:~:text=In%20the%20area%20you%20have,in%20the%20next%2010%20years.

Floodlist:

https://floodlist.com/europe/iceland-south-east-floods-september-2017

NOAA:

https://www.weather.gov/safety/flood-before

Science Direct: 

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S001282521930176X

The Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History Global Volcanism Program:

https://volcano.si.edu/

Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO):

https://en.vedur.is/